While cyber warfare typically occurs beneath the threshold of armed conflict, it plays a crucial role in achieving a country’s political objectives during war. It reveals a pattern of low-intensity, tit-for-tat digital aggression, involving website defacements, misinformation campaigns, espionage, and digital sabotage. While non-state actors on b
The best way to start is to think in terms of existing industrial clusters. Crafting policies focusing on cross-border regional value chains could help build bottom-up solutions. European decision-makers will succeed in this if they shape policy around how the economy is actually structured: not as a collection of isolated nations, but through deep
demands for EU-sourced inputs, EU-based staff recruitment and technology transfers. The commission made these recommendations for the automotive and renewable industries—which suggests Chinese FDIs are its biggest concern in terms of localised value added. Yet Beijing appears set on backing the export to Europe of fully built units—or the simpl
focus on NEVs paid off. While Chinese internal combustion engine vehicles never secured massive market shares—either in China or globally—in just six years, China had effectively leapfrogged the internal combustion era, which the West had allowed to drag on for decades. By 2015, China had become the world’s largest market for electric vehicle
But that is not what the past 15 years of economic interaction with China suggest. Europeans are not up against Chinese businesses—they are up against the strategic ambitions of the Chinese Communist Party, which wields the collective financial firepower of the world’s second-largest economy. China’s expansion is driven by potent, subsidised